Neck muscle is the primary site of vaccination in case of cattle as well as in buffaloes. Subcutaneous route is the preferred route of vaccination in cattle. However, vaccine label as indicated by the manufacturer must be read for route of inoculation before vaccination

Vaccination failure can be broadly attributed to the factors associated with the vaccine and the process of vaccination itself or due to the factors associated with the recipient host. Factors associated with the vaccination failure related to vaccine and the approach of vaccination include improper storage of vaccine leading to cold-chain break especially during despatch; exposing vaccine to sunlight directly during vaccination, which may inactivate the vaccinal antigen; wrong dilution of the vaccine; faulty route of administration of vaccine; inadequate dose of vaccine during vaccination etc. Residual disinfectant on syringe and needle, if used may inactivate the live virus vaccine. Apart from all of the above factors associated with handling of vaccine post-manufacture, inadequate attenuation of vaccine during manufacturing process itself may lead to vaccination failure. The factors associated with the recipient host include interference of maternal antibody, age of animal to be vaccinated, immunosuppression, exposure to infection prior to vaccination or prior to vaccinal antibody development after vaccination etc. which may also lead to vaccination failure in the vaccinated animal.

It is a vaccination strategy in case of young bovine calves between four months to ten months of age, so that the particular vaccinated animal is protected at the later part of life. e.g. Calf hood vaccination against Bovine brucellosis in some countries.

The term ISCOM stands for 'Immune stimulating complexes'. It is used as a vaccine adjuvant. These are nothing but a mixture of saponin with other lipid components like cholesterol and phospholipids. These are mixed with the immunogen and administered as a vaccine.

Yes, VLPs can be used as vaccine. These are non-infectious particles those mimic the viruses. It consists of one or more than one structural proteins without any genetic material. It may also contain an outer lipid envelope that protects inside components. It induces stronger humoral as well as cell-mediated immune response.

Anamnestic immune response is achieved when one animal gets a subsequent dose or booster dose of a vaccine after its initial exposure to the same vaccinal antigen.

Cross-reactivity, which is also known as cross-protective immunity, confers protection by induction of memory T cells. It mainly works in case of two antigenically related immunogens. When an animal already vaccinated with one vaccinal antigen gets exposed to one antigenically related different antigen, the cross-reactivity results.

OMVs stand for outer member vesicles. These are produced by certain Gram negative bacteria containing many antigenic components, which can be tailored for production of new generation bacterial vaccines at the recent time.

Herd immunity is also known as community immunity. When a large proportion of a population is vaccinated and got protected from an infection, it leads to simultaneous protection of few of the non-vaccinated animals within that herd.

Passive immunity refers to the phenomenon of conferment of immunity to an animal indirectly, either through maternal derived antibody or through direct administration of immunoglobulin to the host. The immunoglobulin therapy initiates a quick immune response than that of vaccination approach.